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In the past 50 years, there has been burgeoning philosophical interest in well-being, health, and personal relationships. There has also been increasing philosophical writing on disability, particularly in relation to justice and equality.
Until recently, however, there has been little philosophical discussion of disability's relevance to well-being, health, or personal relationships—in contrast to the growing scholarship on these topics in the social sciences. Until the past decade, most philosophical discussions of well-being simply treated disabilities as conditions that reduced it.
Philosophical accounts of health and disease have mentioned experiences relationships essays, but mainly to treat it as a form of disease or ill-health; they have had little to say about the complex, contested relationship between disease and disability. This Entry will proceed as follows. Part 1 will discuss disability and well-being, experiences relationships essays. It will begin by reviewing debates on the application of three standard accounts of well-being to disability.
It will note the divergence between first- and third-person assessments of the impact of disability on well-being experiences relationships essays all these accounts and suggest some reasons for this divergence. We will then examine what we regard as the most difficult challenge to the claim that many or most disabilities do not necessarily reduce well-being: the widely-held view that it is desirable to prevent, correct, experiences relationships essays mitigate disabilities, and generally undesirable to acquire one.
The concluding section of Part 1 will examine how assumptions about disability and well-being inform a number of contemporary debates in medicine and health care. Part 2 will examine philosophical writing on health and disease. It will review different definitions of health and their implications for the question of whether it is necessarily unhealthy to be disabled. It will consider the few attempts that have been made to distinguish disability from disease, experiences relationships essays.
It will also note a tension for disability scholars in making the distinction between disease and disability: although that distinction provides a basis for separating the medical from the socially constructed aspects of disability, it can also oversimplify the experience of people with disabilities, experiences relationships essays. Part 3 will discuss disability and personal relationships. It will examine widely shared assumptions concerning the impact of disabilities on a variety of relationships, in particular the doubts expressed by many laypeople about the capacity of adults with disabilities to become friends, lovers, and parents.
This Part will also consider how historical and contemporary accounts of friendship and love apply to persons with disabilities. After exploring the relevance of disability to well-being, health, and personal relationships, this Entry will conclude by examining common features of the philosophical treatment of disability in the three domains. Philosophical scrutiny is particularly needed in these areas, experiences relationships essays of the strength and persistence of popular assumptions about the adverse impact of disability on all experiences relationships essays. The impact that disability has on each domain is largely a function of the view or model of disability one accepts.
Disability scholars and philosophers of disability now refer to two models of disability, the medical and the social see SEP entry on disability: definitions, models, experience, experiences relationships essays. For present purposes, we understand the social model of disability as holding that the physical and social environment are the primary source of the limitations and disadvantages faced by people with almost all impairments. This model has obvious relevance for the accounts of well-being, health, and personal relationships we will examine.
It suggests that if people with disabilities appear to be unhappy, unhealthy, or socially isolated, it is primarily due to contingent features of their physical and social environments, not to any intrinsic features of their impaired functions. In some cases, this recognition will require a reassessment of their present well-being, health, or social relationships.
In other cases, it will not challenge that assessment, but will alter the prescription for improving their well-being, health, or relationships, or the expectation of success in doing so. The relationship between disability and well-being is important both theoretically and practically. How philosophers, social scientists, policy makers, and lay people understand that relationship matters for the theories of welfare and flourishing we construct, the judgments about our lives we make on a regular basis, and the social and health policies we adopt.
Assumptions about well-being, tacit as well as explicit, pervade our thinking about disability. Decisions about life-sustaining treatment for severely disabled infants and critically ill adults are often made on the same basis, although what counts now as an acceptable quality of life may differ from what is considered acceptable when contemplating the futures of fetuses and newborns.
The examples could be multiplied, and they are not confined to health-related matters. Disability is often initially encountered as an atypical experiences relationships essays or physical condition whose impact on well-being is mediated by the physical and social environments. For example, an individual is deciding whether to undertake expensive and risky surgery to restore functioning lost in an accident; a couple is deciding whether to continue a pregnancy with a fetus diagnosed with a genetically-based health condition; a legislature is deciding how much money to allocate to competing injury-prevention programs.
All these decision makers first confront disability as a biological phenomenon—a sudden or gradual loss of functioning; a genetic condition with various health effects; a range of vehicular, recreational, household, and workplace injuries.
As these examples suggest, the fact that disability-related disadvantages often reflect contingent features of the social environment may have different relevance for different decisions experiences relationships essays decision makers.
We begin by examining the impact that disabilities have, or are expected to have, on various accounts of well-being, experiences relationships essays. Philosophical discussions of what makes life go well generally recognize three distinct types of accounts. Scanlon distinguishes. Scanlon ff [ 1 ]. These rival accounts of well-being clearly have different implications for the bearing of disability on individual well-being. If, as hedonic experiential theories hold, well-being is a matter of having positive experiences, whether disability reduces well-being depends on whether and to what extent it reduces the number or intensity of positive experiences enjoyed by persons with disabilities.
Indeed, most research on the well-being of people with disabilities relies on self-reports, and those reports do not confirm the grim views of third parties. Most people with disabilities report a quality of life similar to people without disabilities Saigal et al. For similar reasons, self-reports ought experiences relationships essays carry considerable evidentiary weight on desire-based accounts of well-being—though perhaps not as much weight as on the experiential view, if we have less first-person authority with respect to what our desires and their fulfillment than t we do with respect to our experiences.
Self-reports have the most limited and contingent relevance on objective accounts, since individuals will not always be in the best position to know how well they are doing in various physical, social, and professional domains.
Some philosophers regard the implication that persons with disabilities can achieve levels of well-being equal to those of their able-bodied counterparts as a reductio of subjective accounts see Sen ; Crocker And some disability scholars have been drawn to subjective metrics on the basis of their considered judgment that persons with disabilities can achieve levels of well-being that are at least comparable to those of their able-bodied counterparts.
Despite this, subjective accounts may offer only thin practical support for the claim that disabled people are not handicapped in the pursuit of happiness, experiences relationships essays.
Some suspect that these ratings are deliberately overstated to take account of their expected discounting by nondisabled people. Others regard them less as self-reports than as directives against pity or sympathy. Even when self-reports are accepted as sincere, the interpretation of self-reported well-being is disputed Menzel et al. Some psychologists and philosophers see those reports as distorted by adaptation or response-shift; by habituation to aversive experiences or a shift to more modest objectives or comparison classes Menzel et al.
Indeed, the phenomenon of adaptation highlights some of the differences among rival accounts of well-being. Adaptation refers to a group of processes, though which newly disabled people change their habits, experiences relationships essays, activities, and goals to accommodate their disabilities, experiences relationships essays.
Among those processes are developing new skills, changing comparison classes and goals, and habituating to pleasant or unpleasant experiences Menzel et al. But habituating to unpleasant experiences might improve well-being under a hedonic account by making the individual feel less pain or more pleasure. By contrast, experiences relationships essays, on an objective account of well-being, mere habituation and goal-downsizing habituation would not necessarily improve well-being.
Some of the more contentious questions about the relationship between disability and individual well-being concern what objective goods are indispensable for a good life and at what level of generality they should be described, experiences relationships essays.
Both i and ii distinguish objective list theories as a special case of objective or substantive-good theories of well-being. It is difficult to see what unifies all these different categories, but item by item there would probably be widespread agreement on their value and importance for individual well-being. If that implication is false, then the list must be changed.
As Jerome Segal points out, most of us would agree that a life can go very well without one or more of the capabilities Nussbaum regards as essential. Indeed, the most experiences relationships essays of lives of people lacking a single capability may go as well as the most successful lives of people with a standard complement of sensory and motor functions. Although a life could hardly experiences relationships essays well without at least some of these capacities, we have no clear basis for establishing a minimum set.
In understanding how disability may be compatible with high levels of well-being, understood in objective terms, it is helpful to distinguish intrinsic from instrumental value. An activity may experiences relationships essays for itself, e, experiences relationships essays.
As intuitive as the distinction seems, it is difficult to make clearly. First, there is deep disagreement about what is of ultimate value. Second, experiences relationships essays, it is possible to parse many activities and conditions indefinitely into instrumentally valuable means and intrinsically valuable ends, e. extrinsic value. The social model of disability encourages us to experiences relationships essays that many of the activities precluded by certain disabilities can be seen instrumentally, as means to valuable ends—ends that can be achieved by other means that are not precluded by those disabilities.
As Asch contends. Those who maintain that disability forecloses opportunity, and that any experiences relationships essays opportunity experiences relationships essays life, focus too narrowly on the activity and experiences relationships essays not see it as a means to an end, e.
As Asch suggests, much of what we value in seeing, talking, and walking is instrumental. We value them as ways of achieving communication with experiences relationships essays people, reading, and moving from place to place, are themselves be bearers of intrinsic value.
Of course, experiences relationships essays, we also recognize that these activities have instrumental value as well, e. None of these valuable activities, however, is precluded by deafness, blindness, or paraplegia. Each can be achieved in alternative ways, experiences relationships essays, by signing, reading braille, or operating a wheelchair. If these considerations experiences relationships essays on the right track, they show that the instrumental value of species-typical functioning is exaggerated, because its ends can frequently be achieved in multiple ways, many of which are available to people with fewer, impaired, experiences relationships essays atypical functions, experiences relationships essays.
Disability scholars do not deny that typical sensory and motor functions can have great intrinsic as well as instrumental value, but they argue that their intrinsic value is often understood too narrowly. If, for example, we see the intrinsic value in sight not specifically in visual experience, but in sensory and aesthetic experience, experiences relationships essays, then that value is not precluded by blindness.
It may be true that someone who cannot see or hear lacks experiences of great intrinsic value that are available to someone who can see or hear.
However, the broad characterization favored by disability scholars seems most appropriate for assessing the role of intrinsic value in how well our lives go. For example, one obvious source of intrinsic value for experiences relationships essays sensory functions and activities is aesthetic—the beauty, richness, and complexity of the experiences they enable.
But we do not regard color-blindness, tone-deafness, or impairments of smell or taste as inimical to well-being, although they preclude vast ranges of rich aesthetic experience. There is no reason to doubt that someone who has never had, or has long lost, those sensory functions as opposed, say, to an visual artist or food critic who relies on them for her vocation can lead a life as rich and rewarding aesthetically as someone who has those functions, despite lacking admittedly valuable experiences, experiences relationships essays.
This suggests that we cannot infer from the fact that there is great value in a function that those who lack it have lives that go significantly less well. It is only plausible to claim that a good life needs to contain certain kinds of valuable experiences and activities if those kinds of experience and activity are characterized very broadly.
Finally, experiences relationships essays, even granting the significance of objective experiences relationships essays for well-being, it is not only their possession that makes a life go well. Also relevant is how a life seems to the person living it, and this reintroduces subjective elements.
But these strands may not be readily separable: the positive valuation of objective goods may be necessary for the possession of those goods to count towards well-being, experiences relationships essays, or for their absence to count against it.
Moreover, any plausible objective list must include enjoyment or pleasure, either as a free-standing good or as an aspect of valued states, activities or relationships. The differences among standard accounts of well-being are particularly significant in thinking about the well-being of people with severe cognitive impairments.
Experiences relationships essays believe that a separate discussion of this topic is warranted, but not because cognitive impairments are in a class by themselves. As we have noted, there are great differences among all types of impairments.
Cognitive impairments, however, have until recently received relatively little attention in philosophy, and we give them special emphasis as a corrective. Subjective accounts of well-being, hedonic and simple-desire accounts, appear easier to apply to people with such impairments, for two reasons. First, joy, pain, satisfaction, and frustration are more readily conveyed and assessed than the more complex mental states that informed-desire and objective list theories take into account.
The Problem with Love, Simon
, time: 44:49Teens' Social Media Habits and Experiences | Pew Research Center
Nov 28, · (Hero Images/Getty Images) Amid growing concern over social media’s impact and influence on today’s youth, a new Pew Research Center survey of U.S. teens finds that many young people acknowledge the unique challenges – and benefits – of growing up in the digital age Feb 18, · 1. Disability and Well-Being. The relationship between disability and well-being is important both theoretically and practically. How philosophers, social scientists, policy makers, and lay people understand that relationship matters for the theories of welfare and flourishing we construct, the judgments about our lives we make on a regular basis, and the social and health policies we adopt Get high-quality papers at affordable prices. With Solution Essays, you can get high-quality essays at a lower price. This might seem impossible but with our highly skilled professional writers all your custom essays, book reviews, research papers and other custom tasks you order with us will be of high quality
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